Literature Review

Literature Review

Literature Review

Through the lens of General Strain Theory, the present study seeks to examine the realities and hypothesized predictors of offender recidivism. General Strain Theory (GST) was chosen as the theoretical paradigm because of its goodness of fit with the population of multipleoffense criminal offenders. From the literature on GST, arises the question of whether or not the strain caused from being a sex offender compounds the likelihood of re-offense. The present study will address whether specific crimes are predictive of recidivism within the observed subpopulation of offenders. The literature on sexual offender recidivism examines a number of other possible hypotheses for why offenders re-offend. Although contradictory and vague, the literature is resolute in the idea that personality and personal history likely play a significant role. ⁹ This study will also examine whether particular personal history variables can predict the likelihood that the offender has previously offended. In this way, previous literature and the gaps therein beget the variables studied in the present data analysis.

General Strain Theory (GST) is a cousin of Social Learning Theory that posits that individual strain or adversity may result in an increase in delinquent or deviant behavior. ¹⁰ Specifically, the theory contends that delinquency is emergent from three typical contexts: 1) strain as the actual or anticipated failure to achieve positively valued goals; 2) strain as the actual or anticipated removal of positively valued stimuli; and 3) strain as the actual or anticipated presentation of negatively valued stimuli. ¹¹ In other words, the allure or deterrent of an identified stimuli may elicit a delinquent response in individuals if an undesired outcome is predicted or experienced. This undesired outcome or strain precedes the delinquent behavior. Through the GST paradigm, an examination of individual factors as well as an analysis of the social environment is critical in analyzing the interplay between social punishments and rewards and individual response. ¹²

An empirical body of research testing General Strain Theory (GST) suggests that certain social punishments contribute disproportionately to the experience of strain that leads to delinquency. ¹³ In particular, social ostracization, negative social relationships, and the experience of anomie are predictors of delinquent behavior. ¹⁴ GST ultimately contends that although it is possible for an individual to respond to negative social pressure in a non-delinquent manner, negative social pressure is often the precursor to delinquency. ¹⁵

Studies of General Strain Theory have not only focused on individual experiences that predict delinquency, but also provide a theoretical examination of sexual offender recidivism. For the purposes of the present research study, recidivism refers to the re-commission of a sexual offense. Although empirical literature on the intersection of sexual offenders and GST is extremely limited, researchers Alissa Ackerman and Meghan Sacks conducted a unique study that found that Registration and Community Notification Laws (RCNL) create the strain and negative stimuli that can be a significant predictive factor in offender recidivism¹⁶. Ackerman and Sacks explain, “GST is uniquely situated as a parsimonious theoretical explanation for recidivism post-RCNL, given what we currently know…and the consequences of registration and community notification.” ¹⁷ Similarly, a study conducted by Joan Reid and Alex Piquero found that caregiver strain and difficulty nurturing generationally transmitted to youth who had increased level of sexual offense commission and recommission later in life. ¹⁸ Although examining different perspectives of strain, the literature linking General Strain Theory to sexual offense recidivism suggests that it is an area primed for further study. It is through this GST lens, therefore, that the present research seeks to understand other potential strain factors such as personal history factors and nature of previous crime factors and their power in predicting online offender recidivism. ¹⁹

As applied to the present study, General Strain Theory examines both personal history variables and nature of the crime variables that may potentially cause the stress that predicates recidivism. The researcher intentionally chose personal history variables such as drug and alcohol use, mental illness history, history of illegal activity that were likely to create strain in their life once released from jail or prison. ²⁰ Previous research contends that adverse childhood experiences may play a predictive role in the commission of sexual crimes later in life. ²¹

To highlight this point, researchers Jill Stinson and Judith Becker state:

… research suggests [sexual offenders] with psychotic diagnoses with co-morbid substance use disorders or personality disorders are six times more likely to have been arrested for violent sexual crimes… individuals who manifest psychotic illness and sexual behavior problems present with greater psychopathology and additional psychiatric management needs than other sex offender groups.²²

In other words, when analyzing sexual offender recidivism, it is vital to also examine salient personal history factors because they often contribute to the strain placed upon the offender. General Strain Theory hypothesizes that this strain increases the likelihood that an individual will recidivate. ²³

The interplay of the nature of the offender’s crime and offender recidivism is also an important area to consider under the frame of General Strain Theory. In the public eye, not all who were incarcerated are equal, placing a greater social stigma on those who were deemed guilty of sexual offenses. ²⁴ Researcher Laura Grossi contends that sexual offenders often experience social and structural barriers that are “above and beyond” those faced by non-sexual offenders reentering society after prison. ²⁵ Results of the social and structural barriers faced disproportionately by sexual offenders include “increased discrimination in housing or employment, [they may] be denied access to local social capital, be systematically excluded from participating in community-based support programs, and may face community resistance or mobilization against them. ²⁶ It is clear that due to the nature of their offense, sexual offenders face increased barriers and strain that prevent them from assimilating seamlessly back into society after incarceration.

Grossi further contends that simply by labeling a sex offender, and outing the nature of their crime, their strain and likelihood of re-offense may increase significantly. ²⁷ Punitive legal measures in place to track offenders and warn members of society of the presence of an offender in their community are one such cause of sexual offender strain. ²⁸ These studies contend that because offenders are unable to shed their “sex offender” label, they experience an immense sense of psychological strain that increase likelihood of re-offense. ²⁹ Mechanisms such as ankle trackers, sex offender registries, and other stigmatizing and barrier-creating legal initiatives have been questioned by researchers as possible factors that increase likelihood of recidivism. ³⁰ The present study seeks to fill a notable gap in the literature by determining—even more specifically—if specific sub-groups of sexual crimes are predictors of recidivism. From evidence presented in existing literature, the researcher hypothesizes that more violent sexual crimes will be linked to a higher likelihood of recidivism because they place a larger strain on the individual.

Literature Review

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